Theories for the Development of Agriculture

Theories for the Development of Agriculture Question #2: Agriculture was one of the greatest advancements in human history as it provided a foundation for the development of social hierarchies or rank societies, population growth, greater access to resources through trade, and power struggles among the elites. The big question, however, is how did the practice of agriculture originate? Hunting and gathering societies had been very successful up until the time marking the transition to agricultural and sedentary practices. Therefore, why did early modern humans decide to change from an already successful lifestyle? This is a curious matter because the beginnings of agriculture were surprisingly not that effective or successful in generating great outputs of resources as once commonly believed. Agriculture, though it was a successful development in sedentism and increased population growth, brought malnourishment to early Natufian farmers of the lack of variety in its first generations of use. Therefore, the question still remains, why did h unter and gatherers transfer to agriculture and how did the process of agriculture get initiated? There are multiple models proposing the development of agriculture which can be differentiated in a biological and environmental emphasis as well as in a cultural and sociological track. Through the research of Gordon Childe, Braidwood, Binford, Cohen, and Hayden, an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses can be made in the differentiating theories of the development of agriculture. One proposed theory for the development of agriculture was climate change. There have been several large climatic transitions between the interglacial periods. Bar Yosef researched the paleoenvironmental conditions of the Levant and suggests that about 14,000BP (before present) there were more fluctuations in precipitation than changes in temperature, ultimately responsible for the expansion of the vegetational belts. This allowed for vast latitudinal migrations, good foraging patterns, increase in population growth, and an abundance of food resources. However, between 13,000 and 12,800BP known as the Younger Dryas, conditions became colder and drier, decreasing the annual precipitations and a change in the distribution of rainfall locations (29 Oct 2009). This placed much stress on the plants and animals. According to Bar Yosef, the dry climate expanded desert conditions and caused reductions in C3 plants, used for cereal, but also the reduction of megafauna which were unable to ada pt to the new environment (Bar Yosef 1998: 174). This in turn created doubts about the current nomadic organization of the foraging groups. The hunting and gathering bands soon migrated towards the Mediterranean regions to join other foraging groups to live within a close proximity and seek refuge in the small fertile areas. Childe an advocate for climate change as the effect for the development of agriculture states in his Oasis Hypothesis that because of the transition to dry and cold conditions, humans and animals migrated toward the river valleys for necessary water consumption. Bar Yosef states that along with territorial restrictions, [there was] an increased motivation for intentional cultivation (Last Hunters 70). This not only increased population size but could have also instigated sedentary life. The ideal environment that would foster the origins of agriculture would be in an area with an abundance of resources. Previously it was considered that agriculture arose in marginal environments areas where severe climatic change forced human populations to find new foods to eat (Price and Gebauer 7); it is on the contrary however, that populations unable to sustain themselves would not take the risk of testing out new methods for the accumulation of food. Agriculture requires more energy expenditur e and work from all inhabitants than foraging, therefore as a struggling population, this method would not have been the best option. Childes argument takes into account the climatic and environmental pressures but it does not provide any cultural factors that might have also influenced the development of agriculture. Braidwood challenges Childes hypothesis and suggests a more culturally driven theory for the agricultural origins. Contrary to Childes Oasis Theory in which desiccation marginalized suitable foraging territories and caused large groups to settle in close proximities in lowland oases, Braidwood suggests through his Nuclear Zone Theory and through his research in the Zagros-Taurus mountain ranges, that agriculture in fact began in the well-watered regions known as the hilly flanks of the Fertile Crescent (Watson 25). Braidwood accepts the notion that climatic change has some sort of an effect on the origins of agriculture; however, he suggests that it only plays a minor role, contrary to the ideas of Childe. Braidwood instead proposes that the development of agriculture is dependent on the presence of cultural mechanisms (Redman 1978: 96) because along with the presence of agriculture, social and political systems of the early Natufian people were created as well. Braidwood states that agriculture was the natural outcome from social and cultural complexities. He questioned that if cultural change i s reliant on climate change stated by Childe, then why did agriculture not start before the large changes occurred during the interglacial periods, such as 125 million years ago (3 Nov 2009)? Using a cultural approach, Braidwood suggests that agriculture was not possible 125 million years ago because the human cognition was not fully developed and complex enough to suggest any such type of food accumulation methods (10 Nov 2009). Agriculture requires a lot of coordination and management controlled by the elites, therefore, it could be hypothesized that with the presence of social hierarchies, sedentism was also in establishment. The favorable environment of the hilly flanks as well as the presence of the ancestral or wild strains of the now domesticated plants offered foragers the option to settle down. With the act of settling down in the optimal zones, as well as the accumulation of knowledge about the physical environment, Braidwood suggests that over time, foragers would eventua lly realize the potential inherent in the local flora and fauna and would exploit that potential by domesticating appropriate species (Watson 25). This also suggests the requirement of greater cognition and larger brain size of the modern human; and therefore Braidwood argues agriculture appears only when the human culture was mature (3 Nov 2009). Braidwoods hilly flanks theory is successful because it attributes to developments of sedentism and food storage. Braidwood criticizes Childes dependence on climatic change as being the main reason for the origins of agriculture because he holds a cultural perspective in regards to its development. Braidwood states that if cultural change, the transition to agriculture, depended solely on noncultural factors, the climate, then there should be evidence of cultural change before the last Ice Age that separates the end of the Pleistocene and the Holocene (3 Nov 2009). Against Kleins Big Bang Theory regarding human cognition, agriculture simply did not happen before the Holocene because humans were not ready or complex enough to have the capability of creating the idea of agriculture (10 Nov 2009). Braidwood and Childe both suggest that agriculture occurred in small optimal zones, however, through Braidwoods research in the mountainous regions of Iraq, he concludes that there was no significant climate change because the areas were still relatively fertile and therefore there was a large concentrati on of animals and plants that could be exploited. According to the Willy Sutton principle, where there are ample resources, then people will settle there and take advantage of those resources (3 Nov 2009). A weakness in Braidwoods theory however is that he does not try to answer the question: why did agriculture occur at the time that it did? It is suggested that agriculture developed independently throughout the world at relatively the same time. Braidwood does not question why this happened but only concentrates on how it happened. Braidwood provides good reasons as to why he criticizes Childes hypothesis, however, his weakness is that he does not provide a strong alternative theory. In his book, Prehistoric Man, he states, the groups became agricultural villagers because they were ready for it (MacNeish 9) which demonstrates his theory that man only developed agriculture when the culture and cognition were more complex. This however is not an effective alternative hypothesis beca use it needs evidence to support the claim. The only evidence available is the size of the human brain, which does not deduce much information because archaeologists cannot question the cognitive capabilities of the deceased. Artifacts are available to suggest development in ideas and concepts, but this is also highly subjective. An alternative hypothesis to the development of agriculture is directly correlated with population growth. Both Mark Cohen and Lewis Binford attribute that with the pressures on food availability caused by population growth, agriculture was an innovative development which helped sustain growing societies. Louis Binfords model for agriculture weaves pieces of both Childes and Braidwoods hypotheses. Binford suggests that hunting-gathering groups maintained equilibrium between their population size and availability of resources in order to remain under the environments carrying capacity (Watson 26). This idea explains why foraging groups were successful; they kept a control on the food intake for each person. During the Younger Dryas, as climate became colder and drier, groups moved to the coastal regions where they became sedentary, as Childe had concluded. The difference however is that Binford focuses on population size as the stressor and instigator for agriculture. Groups congregat ed into the optimal zones, putting pressure on the available resources as well as creating an imbalance on the carrying capacity. This caused some groups to move out of the optimal zones and settle along the peripheries that had drought-resistant plants and smaller-sized animals (5 Nov 2009). With the increased pressure of supporting population sizes and the need to remain under the areas carrying capacity, groups intensif[ied] their subsistence practices in the direction of domesticating plants and animals (Watson 26). The necessity for subsistence strategies in addition significantly impacted societys social and economic factors, demonstrated through Brian Haydens social competition theory. This theory establishes that sedentism preceded agriculture. In order for the sedentary lifestyle to persist and work efficiently, rank societies were established. In response to social hierarchies, there is an inherent need to accumulate power and prestige. Power is equated to food, and in order for elites to maintain their prestige and power they need to be maintain large quantities of food. To exponentially increase their possession of food, the development of agriculture comes into effect. Hayden proposes that the development of agriculture is a result of stress from social competition and the change in the social environment (10 Nov 2009). This change in societal structure is not the result of agriculture but it is more so the cause of agriculture (10 Nov 2009). Hayden also states that agriculture can only occur in locations where there is already an abundance of food and where it can be reproduced (Zeder 2006: 111). The reason for this is that large societies would not put thei r inhabitants at risk attempting a new method of food accumulation if environmental conditions were unsuitable. The development of agriculture, if conditions were successful, was able to produce surpluses which increased rank of elites and created storage for food. Agriculture also increased long distance trade and cross cultural relationships. With the presence of surpluses, societies could afford to give something away (5 Nov 2009). A flaw in Haydens model is that he also fails to address Braidwoods question concerning the reason for why agriculture only occurs in the Holocene and not earlier. In order to understand the models described above with the origins of agriculture it important to account for the archaeological data. Some important ways to extract data is through pollen samples found in water bogs, radiocarbon dating, DNA extraction, etc. For example, in regards to Braidwoods hypothesis that climate change was not as important as Childe and Binford believed, reconstruction of plant communities enable archaeologists to reconstruct Paleolithic climates (29 Oct 2009). In order to reconstruct plant communities, pollen samples are used. Pollen samples can be preserved in waterlogged sediments because the mud at the bottom of the lakes have aerobic conditions, which means that there is no oxygen, allowing pollen and other artifacts to be nicely preserved (29 Oct 2009). Another method to reconstruct climatic conditions and determine when the Younger Dryas occurred is by evaluating methane gas presence in the ice cores found in Greenland (3 Nov 2009). This along with plan t communities can help reconstruct past climates. Lithic assemblages used by the first farmers, the Natufians, are also good indicators of when agriculture originated. Tools such as picks and sickle blades were used for harvesting cereals; this can be inferred by observing the microwear on the blades, but also through plant macrofossils which might contain residue from the particular grass being cut (Bar-Yosef 1998: 164). Agriculture can also be demonstrated by the structures of the central plant stems. In domesticated plants the seeds do not break off as easily as the wild grains do, which is evidence of human manipulation on plants to maximize output but a correlation of harvests with seasonality (29 Oct 2009). Another source of evidence for the origins of agriculture is looking at samples of preserved human coprolites in settled communities which helps detect what type of diet the human had. If there is a lack of nutrition, then it can be inferred that the society was just beginn ing the innovation of agriculture as there was a lack of nutrition and variety in early agricultural diets. Not just coprolites but also bone composition, tooth enamel, and support for the presence of pandemic diseases provide good archaeological support for the origins of agriculture (Zeder 2006: 110). Its observed that carbon and nitrogen isotopes found within the bone and microwear on teeth detect the nutrition of humans. Other archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture, described by Zeder (2006: 110) is the presence of fences and corral to enclose the communitys animals; this reason fits nicely with the social theory and necessity for agriculture because it demonstrates the complete transition to sedentary life and the domestication of plants and animals. There are multiple theories that be equated to the development of agriculture and they all tend to build off of each other. Yes, each archaeologist or theorist emphasizes slightly different nuances, however they interrelate archaeological, environmental, and societal information in each of their models. According to Watson, Braidwoods account improves on Childes, and Binfords upon Braidwoods (27). I propose that the stress theories of Childe, Cohen, and Binford can co-occur with the cultural change theories of Braidwood and Hayden. Agriculture could have been a great phenomenon that occurred by accident, but human cognition had to have had enough knowledge for the manipulation of grasses and animals to exploit and produce large surpluses. In order to keep order within the society with the presence of agriculture there also has to have been control and power structures. Climatic changes play a huge role in regards to where societies choose to settle and in the strength of seasonal foo d production. In recognizing the biological and cultural aspects of agriculture, it can be deduced that these models are very much interrelated with specific links that may cause one theorists model to lean heavily to one side or another. There is not one universal applicable theory for the origin of agriculture because all of the worlds systems are interdependent on one another. Question #3: States are regionally organized societies with large populations that are economically and ethnically diverse. This suggests that the formation of a state occurs when there are social hierarchies with a small elite group that accentuates its sovereignty and dominance over the rest of the population. According to Algazes lecture, societies must have political administration, economic administration or redistribution, and religious indoctrination or infrastructure in order to be labeled as a state (17 Nov 2009). It has commonly been noted that states or cities are only considered as such with the dependence of a large population size, 100,000 people or more. R. Fox in his book Urban Anthropology, however, discusses that determining a state or a city on raw size or scale is not completely irrelevant but it is also not an important key component (17 Nov 2009). It is more important to evaluate a city or state on its function and sustainability. The central question therefore is: what comp onents are important in the formation of a state? In Jonathan Haas book, The Evolution of the Prehistoric State, he divides numerous theories of the origins and formations of states into two categories: the conflict position and the integration position. These two positions try to argue how states formed and regulated and maintained control over the complex societies. Through the theories of Engels and Fried regarding the conflict position, Haas argues that states formed and resolved economic and social stratifications effectively over their own populations and neighboring peoples through coercion. Opposed to the conflict position, Haas derives the integration position argument from Service, in which state governments were able to regulate and maintain social order over its inhabitants without the use of forceful tactics. Haas ultimately does not support either position: for conflict or for integration, however, if it was necessary, the conflict theory would seem more plausible as i t contains more valid reasons and logical thought.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the basic components that influenced Engels and Fried to cooperate with the conflict model were the increases in agricultural production, development of trade relationships, and the introduction of irrigation systems for water control. Engels states that the formation of the state begins with origins of agriculture (Haas 1982: 36). With the ability to produce more food and create surpluses for a growing population, societies became more sedentary and divisions of labor were created. The increase in food production created specialized occupations and allowed the elites to assume political administrative roles or have an impact in religious dealings. The role of religious figures is important as it is correlated with the states political administration. Religion has a faà §ade, seen to unite a population, however, it is also influentially political in order to control and regulate public affairs (Haas 1982: 44). The large prominence of religious temples provides strong support for the importance of religious ideology and coercion in a common belief upon the inhabitants within the state (Stein 1994: 42). Childe also argues that with the need to support non-agricultural producing groups within the society, irrigation agriculture not only increased food availability on a large scale but also was an important facet for social control (Haas 1982: 40). The social control derives from elites controlling the power of water supply as well as the necessity of a huge labor source. The conflict model comes into effect due to the presence of differences in economic wealth and divisions of labor. Engels states that as the politically dominant class acquires the new means of holding down and exploiting the oppressed classby levying taxes and enforcing social control [through] force (Haas 1982: 37). Austin also provides knowledge on the conflict position in the governments development of laws. Laws coerce the population to maintain order and submit to the political authorities of the elites; otherwise there are negative reciprocations (Haas 1982: 38). In Frieds model the basis for the conflict theory is the maintenance of social order in regards to possible conflict arousal to the differences in access to resources (Haas 1982: 49). With the increase in agricultural production and limited access to resources, private property became an issue in establishing economic and political status. Fried states that with the sanctity of private property, social order is accomplished through instituted governmental enforcement (49). Fried successfully discusses that with the changes in mate rialistic components such as increased food production, development of irrigation systems, and private property, the influence of political organization was pertinent. With the combination of military organization and laws along with stratification of classes, state formation provides support for elite social groups and the forceful submission of the peasant groups to the elites generating potential conflicts (Haas 1982: 49). Through evidence that supports state formations, economic scales become more and more important to maintain, grow, and flaunt among peripheral societies and therefore it is important to bring populations together in a defensive mode which calls for the construction of outer walls (19 Nov 2009). Fried provides theoretical approaches to his conflict theory based on the forced rule over a states inhabitants, however, Haas states that he fails to recognize the critical importance and utility of the archaeological record (1982: 50) for evidence to support his claim, and instead hypothesizes the emergence of states by looking at historically known societies (1982: 51). Frieds model can be testable, however it would need to be improved with more data and documentation from pre-state formed societies derived from the archaeological record rather than the historically based inferences. Fried bases his theory more on the logical approaches, for example, he supports the idea that within the means of producing more wealth, it is inevitable to have causes of social friction (19 Nov 2009). Some evidence that could relate to the forced control and economic differentiation amongst the inhabitants can be demonstrated through the layout of the city. For example, large structures belonging to the elites were central to the marketplace and the peasants separated farther away from the center. The presence of numerous temples centrally located indicates strong emphasis on religion and conforming to the beliefs described by the elites who most commonly absorbed the priest occupation. In Ubaid Mesopotamia, the architecture and distributions of artifacts demonstrate economic differentiations within households (Stein 1994: 38) such as with burial practices, artwork, and administration clay tablets. Also, the location of the houses and cities along the rivers and near the canal irrigation systems suggests potential trade of the surplus goods amongst neighboring societies with the ability to transport by waterways (Stein 1994: 42). Fried supports the conflict theory in which forceful tactics were used to create efficient states and political rule. On the contrary, advocates for the integration position propose social order was regulated without forceful tactics. Spencer for example argues that the lower classes, subordinate to the elite classes due to the development of social hierarchies within the political structure, accepted their lowly position in society compared to the wealthy elites (Haas 1982: 63) because of the inability to social climb. Haas also discusses that there might not be demonstrations of conflict or raging warfare between the elite and peasant groups because the peasants are politically and economically incapable of waging successful revolution[s] (1982: 79). According to Gumplowicz, the development of private property acted as a factor to maintain social control, an alternative to physical force (Haas 1982: 64). The main argument for the integration position is that after the state formed, classes were able to reunite through religion, residence locations, and language or culture. This suggests that integration might only be possible within the specific social classes and not throughout the all the social structures in the state. In regards to religion as a non-forceful factor in social order is through the argument of Moret and Davy who argues that rulers who view themselves as a god, thought that they derived their power from the will of the people (Haas 1982: 70). This reason is popularized to keep peasant revolts and power struggles within the kings hereditary circles subdued. Service asserts that political power in the formation of states due to the integration position was redistributive and was acquired by strong leadership qualities which were then passed into the hereditary elite classes (Haas 1982: 75). With the increase in population and size, integration is necessary for cooperation and successfulness in the administration of the state. Service also argue s that the first governments were ruled by right of authority and through the application of sacred sanctions (Haas 1982: 76). The purpose of the religious architecture was to provide social cohesion and control. The weakness of Services argument for the integration position is he advocates that the centralized government provides lots of resources and benefits to the people such as irrigation, religious beliefs, and protection, however he does not recognize that to have an effective state, force needs to be used to keep subjects under control to establish a stable and permanent government. The integrative position also proposes that public works were accomplished voluntary without physical force. However, there are no archaeological records of temples being voluntarily constructed. It can be detected from written documents that throughout other histories, public works were forced upon slaves; therefore the integration position seems weak and too optimistic. Evidence of the presence of walls and military troops suggests that protection was a necessity and important to demonstrate political autonomy over the societys own inhabitants and peripheral communities with who trade is accomplished. Haas does a great job in equally discussing the conflict and integration positions. It however seems more plausible that the conflict position influenced the formation of states as it part of human instinct to assert power and control over others in order to better maintain their own social position. Recognition of power and autonomy is essential in creating a stable state, and can only be accomplished by forcing people to cooperate with rules and regulations.

Organic vs. Inorganic Foods Essay

Introduction Our world today is infested and becoming way more dangerous with all these chemicals. In an effort to increase productivity and confine bigger market shares, the use of fertilizers, pesticides, food additives such as dyes and additives has become so common that artificial ingredients are now outnumbering natural ingredients on many food content labels, and it is the opinion of many experts that this forever increasing use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides, and chemical additives has a direct connection to the alarming rise in cancer rates and other health problems. (Aldrich, P.1) Organic foods are quickly becoming recognized as a reasonable alternative in this chemical loaded world. The focus on environmentally sound agricultural methods and prolonging agriculture is getting the attention of many who are now concerned about what they’re eating as well as the environment. Organic foods are what is happening. They are becoming a part of many traditional diets, and are viewed as an important and essential part of a healthy diet plan. They are also viewed as a reliable and safe alternative to the issues regarding conventionally grown, processed, and packaged foods. Many organic followers believe that once you’ve tasted organic foods you can’t go back to typically grown foods the taste is unbelievable. People are now looking for good food with real nutrition and quality and they’re finding it in organic foods. The realization of a need for quality food supplies is awakening interest in other areas such as environmental stewardship. These concerns range from recycling your pop cans to selecting environmentally friendly household cleaning products. Learning organics provides many easy and interesting ideas that can help you do your part in preserving a healthy, prosperous environment for the people in your family. Body Eating organic foods is the key feature of the natural passion that is taking over the country. Once an interest, organically grown foods seemed to be a major part of the diet of most people. Now with the growing attention on healthy habits and programs that help prevent illness, organic foods are quickly becoming the vital ingredients of the diet in typical America. Organic foods are the fastest growing style in the food industry. In fact, the demand for organically grown foods has increased 20% over last year. Sales of organic produce, for example, are now a multi-billion dollar industry. (Fisher, P. 22) Shopping the Co op has for a long time been the best place to find organic foods. Now with increased consumer interest organic specialty supermarkets are popping up all over the nation. Major supermarkets are also stepping up to the demand, offering organic food departments and organic options in the produce sections of the store. The look of the co-op is expanding to reflect the needs of added customers, and many gourmet oriented offerings are quickly becoming a part of the every day offerings at the co op, which only helps to make food shopping an increasing interesting and fun experience. As far as costs are concerned, those consumers jumping on the organic bandwagon will pay more for organic foods, but they believe that the benefits far outweigh the 5% to 20% increase in cost. The trend in organic food is growing and as competition increases in order to address skyrocketing customer demand, prices will stabilize. Here are a few of the nutrients that were found in higher levels in the organic foods: OChromium is a micronutrient that is low in Western diets. Its deficiency is associated with the onset of adult diabetes and atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). Chromium was found to be higher in organic foods by an average of 78%. OSelenium is one of the antioxidant nutrients that protect us from damage by environmental chemicals. It is protective against cancers and heart disease. It was found to be an average of 390% higher in organic foods. OCalcium, needed for strong bones, averaged 63% higher in organics. OBoron, which has been shown to help prevent osteoporosis (along with calcium), averaged 70% more. OLithium, which is used to treat certain types of depression, was 188% higher. OMagnesium, which reduces mortality from heart attacks, keeps muscles from spasming, and eases the symptoms of PMS, averaged 138% more. OIn short, many of the minerals that I most often prescribe to my patients are found in much higher levels in organic foods. ORGANIC VS NON-ORGANIC Variations in Mineral Content in Vegetables. % of dry weightMilliequivalents per 100 gm dry weightTrace Elements parts per million dry matter Ash PhosCalMagnPotassSodBoronMangIronCoppCobalt SNAP BEANS Organic10. 450. 3640. 560. 099. 78. 67360227690. 26 Inorganic4. 040. 2215. 514. 829. 10. 01021030. 00 CABBAGE Organic10. 380. 3860. 043. 6148. 320. 4421394480. 15 Inorganic6. 120. 1817. 515. 653. 70. 872200. 40. 00 LETTUCE Organic24. 180. 4871. 019. 3176. 512. 237169516600. 19 Inorganic7. 010. 2216. 013. 153. 70. 061930. 00 TOMATOES Organic14. 200. 3523. 059. 2148. 36. 536681938530. 63 Inorganic6. 070. 164. 54. 558. 80. 051100. 00 SPINACH Organic28. 560. 5296. 0203. 9257. 069. 5881171584320. 25 Inorganic12. 380. 2747. 546. 984. 60. 8121190. 050. 20 Other studies have looked at vitamin levels of food plants treated with certain pesticides. They showed that application of some pesticides would significantly lower the vitamin levels in the plants they were applied to. This is different than the notion that plants raised with chemicals are low in nutrients because the soil is used up. This shows that chemicals actually reduce the amount of nutrients in plants after application. The nutrients most often affected are vitamin C, beta carotene, and the B vitamins. These nutrients are vitally necessary for the body to withstand the onslaught of chemical toxins. When they studied organic food for mineral levels, the researchers also looked for the amount of the heavy metals aluminum, cadmium, lead and mercury. Aluminum has been implicated for years in the development of Alzheimer’s disease. It’s content in organic food averaged 40% less that in commercial foods. Lead toxicity, which has been in the new a lot lately, can adversely affect our children’s’ IQ. It averaged 29% lower in organic foods. Mercury, which can cause neurological damage, averaged 25% lower in organic foods. (Aldrich, P. 1) Besides the lower levels of heavy metals, there are the chemical residues themselves. The big question is whether or not the accumulation of pesticide residues in non-organic foods is a real health concern or not. Studies have never been able to conclusively show a direct correlation between residues in food and a decline of human health, but there are numerous problems in doing any such study. The first is that you would need a population of people who are free of chemical residues to compare to, and no one has been able to find a group. According to an constant EPA study of fat samples taken from surgeries and autopsies across the country, we are all loaded with chemical residues. Similar studies done on other countries all show the same results. (Baer, P. 1) The clearest studies that we have about pesticide residues and disease are those looking at breast cancer. In the last few years there have been a chain of studies, each building upon the other, looking at the level of ddt, dde, and pcb in women, They have shown that chemical residues in the serum and fat cells of women greatly increase the risk of breast cancer. Since breast cancer is a major killer of women in this country it is reasonable to say that avoidance of pesticide residues in food could save numerous lives and reduce our health care cost dramatically. After 50 years of â€Å"Better Living through Chemistry† scientists have finally shown that breast cancer is associated with pesticide residue, they have yet to prove that it causes numerous other maladies. I am not waiting for them to prove it before I change my eating habits. (Fisher, P. 12) As a clinician who sees numerous environmentally poisoned people with health problems, I am convinced of an association between chemicals and disease. The biggest source of exposure for many people is their workplace, then their homes, followed by air, food and water. Of these the easiest to control are our home environment and our diet. Eating organic food, drinking pure water, and watching our airborne chemical exposure can have profound effects on our health. My friend Steve, who has now gone through an extensive protocol to remove the pesticide residue from his body and had regained his health, will back me up on that. When he added up the costs of his illness in time off work and medical expenses, he found that eating organic food was much less expensive than eating non-organic foods. He is eating better foods now, and my organic garden continues to grow, along with my children. Conclusion The only real problem with organic grown foods is that they are more expensive, and this is because the growers of this produce experience more loss since they don’t use pesticides on their crops. As for the health benefits just think, you wouldn’t want to put any of these chemical pesticides straight into your body, but that is essentially what is happening when you consume these foods that have been sprayed with pesticides. Over a period of time these can cause harm, and this is why organic foods are so highly recommended for people trying becoming healthier. The organic industry has seen an explosion of growth in the past few years. In 1992, sales had already reached $1. 5 billion(Fisher, P. 16). Today the market is worth almost ten times that, and by 2009 it’s predicted the market will double again to be worth close to $32 billion. Consumer demand for natural, organic foods is booming and shows no signs of slowing down. Look for labels that say certified or authentic organic. Labels that say all natural or naturally grown are OK, but they are not the same as certified organic which demands the achievement of certain regulations. Producers and handlers must be certified by a USDA official certifying agent to sell, label, or represent their products as 100 percent organic or made with organic. References 1)Aldrich, Samuel R. â€Å"Which System Can Meet the Food Needs in Today’s World? † Conventional V. Organic Farming. 09 Dec. 2006 . 2)Baer, Firman E. â€Å"Firman E. Baer Report. † Orgnanic Vs. Inorganic. Rutgers University. 12 Dec. 2006 . 3)Fisher, Helen S. Food Safety. Detroit: Gale Group, 2004. 1-29. 4)Lexile. â€Å"Good Food? – Good Food? Ethical Food. † The Economist 9 Dec. 2006: 12. 5)†Wal-Mart Charged with Selling Nonorganic Food as Organic. † U. S. Newsire 14 Nov. 2006: 17-18. 6)Corbett, John R. The Biochemical Mode of Actions of Pesticides. New York: Academic P, 1974. 2-16. 7)Dunn-Georgiou, Elisha. Everything You Need to Know About Organic Foods. New York: Rosen Publications, 2002. 65-82. 8)Lipson, Elaine. The Organic Foods Sourcebook. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2001. 15-42. 9)Rousseau, George S. Organic Form: TH Elife of an Idea.

Military Commission

For years I have been dedicated to the principles and values that are represented by the United States Navy within my everyday life, and to the philosophy that governs the role of the Health Care Administration Officer in the Medical Service Corps. For this reason, among many, I am seeking a commission with the United States Navy in this capacity. My strong work ethic, my adherence to the philosophy and ethics of both the Navy and the medical field, and my ability to work as a member of a team make me a successful candidate for this position, and I am certain that I have many qualities that I could bring to this commission that would enhance not only my own abilities, but enhance the United States Navy. Early on I realized that it was important to help others, to go outside of the box that is the average person’s life and reach out to others, whether they live right next door or across the world. It was this desire that led me to volunteer and participate in community service, an experience that has helped me develop into an individual that enjoys serving mankind, and who understands the importance of doing so because I have witnessed the effects kindness and compassion has on others in need. Along with my desire to serve mankind through compassion, I also saw the United States military as sharing those values that I cherished, and realized that a career in the military would allow me to use my strengths in pursuit of attaining both my own goal, and that of our nation. In high school I joined the NJROTC and remained dedicated to this organization throughout four years until graduation. I have served as a Supply Officer and Commander, and through these experiences I have developed the commitment, courage, and discipline through the training provided to me by the United States Navy. Throughout these years I have never given up my belief that helping others is the highest calling of any individual, and the U.S. Navy brings out the best in me, and it is these traits that I wish to bring to the Medical Service Corps. It was my time in the Leadership Academy through the NJROTC that truly transformed my life and pushed me in the direction of my ultimate goal in a commission with the U.S. Navy. During my time at the Leadership Academy I was pushed to my limits both intellectually and physically, and was asked time and time again to be the best cadet that I could be. The fact that this was expected of me, and that others truly believed in me, gave me the will power and self-confidence to challenge myself to limits that I had never imagined possible. I was instilled with confidence, honor for myself and my nation, and learned to be self-reliant. These values all helped me develop leadership qualities within myself. By the end of my time at the Leadership Academy I was placed as one of the top three cadets and had developed new goals for myself, goals that I intend to fulfill within this commission. In pursuit of this goal, I have attained a Masters degree in Health Care Management, a field that allows me to use all of my strengths to the betterment of others. My ability to organize and effectively communicate with others are essential in this field, and I have spent many years, both inside a classroom and within the NJROTC and beyond, developing my management skills. A Health Care Administration Officer requires the ability to manage effectively and create a team environment in which to function. The leadership abilities that I began developing at Leadership Academy, and which I have continued to develop, are essential to being successful in this field. My time in the NJROTC has taught me that I must have high standards for myself in all aspects of my life, and this would transfer easily to this position. Beyond this, my dedication to helping others and showing compassion to those who are in pain or ill, has led me to the belief that I would bring a great deal to the position of Health Care Administration Officer in the United States Navy’s Medical Service Corps, and I would be proud to continue the tradition of service and sacrifice that has been shown by my predecessors in this commission.

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essay - 2211 Words

Pips False Expectations nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; In Charles Dickens Great Expectations, the reader is taken through the journey of a little boy as he pursuits his dream and great expectations beyond his common self. Pips, the protagonist, dream of becoming a gentleman is realized upon his meeting of Estella, the love of his life. Pip changes from an innocent, sensitive and common young boy to a selfish, rejecting adolescent. He is led into making grave mistakes based on his false expectations of marrying Estella and being a gentleman. In the end, he learns that all his aspirations have been based on false presumptions and expectation of his ability to rise above his past and become something better.†¦show more content†¦However, Pip brings Joe to Miss Havisham, on her request. Pip is embarrassed of Joes clothing, the way he fiddles with his hat and how he walks on his tiptoes as they enter the house of Miss Havisham. He comments that Joes dialect seems unusually strong and illiterate. As Miss Havi sham questions Joe about starting Pip on his apprenticeship, Joe directs his answers towards Pip, who continually tries to make Joe address Miss Havisham. He is embarrassed of Joe and for Joe. Pip is now the apprentice to Joe, a blacksmith, and is sent home with no more welcomed invitations to Satis House. He reflects on his new job, quot;I was truly wretched, and had a strong conviction on me that I should never like Joes trade. I had liked it once, but once was not now (Dickens, 104)quot; to explain the humiliation of his new quot;commonquot; job and his future of becoming a blacksmith. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The next point in Pips life that changes his attitude towards Joe and Biddy is his new found wealth granted to him from an unknown benefactor. Pip learns that he is endowed to a fortune, which will lead him to London to become a gentleman. His happiness for this endowment is unfathomable. The money changes his life as apprentice, as well as blacksmith, which he does not desire as he points out to Biddy, quot; I am not at all happy as I am. I am disgusted with my calling and with my lifeShow MoreRelatedGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1113 Words   |  5 Pagesadventures that the male characters go on. This seems to be relevant in a lot of movies and books like the story Great Expectations by Charles Dickens. In Great Expectations there are multiple female characters like Estella, Biddy, and Miss Havisham who all play a large part in the main character, Pip’s life. One of the first that we meet the character Estella in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations is when Pip goes to Miss Havisham’s to play with her. The two kids play the game beggar my neighbor when EstellaRead MoreGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1347 Words   |  6 Pagespoor status of the economy, social mobility does not seem to be occurring at high rates, with the poor getting poorer and rich getting richer. Despite this, social mobility is alive and well, and has been for centuries. In his novel, Great Expectations, Charles Dickens voices the concerns of many that lived in Victorian England during the 19th century by promoting such a desire to live life in a more prosperous social class. One of the most fundamental and reoccurring themes in the novel is that ofRead MoreGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1426 Words   |  6 Pages Twelve-year-old Charles dickens gets ready for bed after a long day at the blacking house. These Victorian-aged memories will provide him with many ideas for his highly acclaimed novel Great Expectations. Set in 1830 England, Great Expectations is a coming-of-age story about a common innocent boy named Pip and his road to becoming a gentleman through the influence of others. Pip is influenced both positively and negatively by Estella, Herbert, and Magwitch. Estella left a huge impression on PipRead MoreGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens984 Words   |  4 PagesCharles Dickens utilizes his life for inspiration for the protagonist Pip in his novel Great Expectations. They both struggle with their social standing. Dickens loved plays and theatre and therefore incorporated them into Pip’s life. Dickens died happy in the middle class and Pip died happy in the middle class. The connection Dickens makes with his life to Pip’s life is undeniable. If readers understand Dickens and his upbringing then readers can understand how and why he created Pip’s upbringingRead MoreCharles Dickens Great Expectations943 Words   |  4 Pages This is true in many cases but none as much as in Great Expectations. In many ways the narrator/protagonist Pip is Charles Dickens in body and mind. While there are many differences between the story and Charles Dickens life there remains one constant. This constant is the way Pip as the narra tor feels, because these feelings are Dickens s own feelings about the life he lead. Since Great Expectations was written towards end of Charles Dickens life, he was wiser and able to make out the mistakesRead MoreGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens1375 Words   |  6 PagesGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens and The Talented Mr Ripley by Anthony Minghella present similar criticisms of society to a large extent. Both of these texts consider the criticisms of rich social contexts (wealth and status), societal morality (whether a society is good or not. Status [can lead to the wrong people being in a high position i.e. making bad decisions affecting the community/society] Appearance [society appears to be moral/good (if you’re from a higher status) {dickens criticisesRead MoreCharles Dickens Great Expectations1223 Words   |  5 PagesBeloved author Charles Dickens was born on February 7, 1812 in Portsmouth, England. Growing up in a life of poverty, his childhood hardshi ps provided the inspiration to write a myriad of classic novels including his 1861 seminole masterpiece, Great Expectations (â€Å"BBC History - Charles Dickens†). Great Expectations follows the life of an orphan named Pip, who’s perspective of the world is altered when he is attacked by an escaped convict in his parents’ graveyard in the town of Kent. Throughout hisRead MoreGreat Expectations By Charles Dickens924 Words   |  4 Pagesa character driven novel, or a mix of the two. In order for a novel to be character driven, it must revolve more around the characters’ individual thoughts, feelings, and inner struggles, rather than around the quest of the story. Great Expectations, by Charles Dickens, is a character driven novel. While the story does have a plot, it is not contingent upon that plot, but rather is reliant upon its characters and their natures. This is evident from the beginning of the novel. From the opening ofRead MoreCharles Dickens Great Expectations1669 Words   |  7 PagesCharles Dickens He was one of England s greatest authors of the 1800 s, better known as the Victorian era. The various themes and ideas of that time are perfectly showcased in his many novels and short stories, such as Nicholas Nickelby, Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, A Tale of Two Cities, and A Christmas Carol. Much of the inspiration for these works came from the trials and conflicts that he dealt with in his own life. His volumes of fictional writing show the greatRead MoreCharles Dickens Great Expectations1017 Words   |  5 Pagesexperiencer is somewhere else absorbing knowledge of a different setting.This abstract adventure is seized by author Charles Dickens in Great Expectations. Great Expectations is historical fiction giving readers comprehension of the Victorian Era.Upon the reading, readers begin to catch on the intended purpose and its significance. A person who lived during the Victorian Era was Charles Dickens himself.He grew up during a time where differences in social class were to an extreme degree.Dickens went through